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Bab II
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description
The basic concept of the study should be made clear from the start. This is considered worthwhile to understand the ideas conveyed. Therefore, the classification of the concept will prevent possible misunderstanding between the write and the reader. In other words, the following is considered to be important to discuss for clarifying the concepts or being discussed so that the readers will get the point clearly.
1. Speaking
When we ask our students to use the spoken language in the classroom, we require them to take part in a process that does not only involve knowledge of target forms and functions, but also a general knowledge of the interaction between the speaker and listener in order that meaning and negotiating of meanings are made clear. Despite oral communication involves the negotiation of meaning between two or more persons; it is always related to the context in which it occurs.
According to Oxford is the speaking is “to be willing polite or friendly toward somebody, especially after an argument. Speaking used to show that what you saying are true in a general, etc[1]. In the hand, O’ Malley and Pierce as quoted by Huges state that speaking means negotiated intended meaning and adjusting one’s speech to produce the desired affect on the listener.[2] Speaking, as we all know is a skill required in English. It is more complicated than it seems at first, and involves more than just pronouncing words. A speaker determines the ideas to be communicated, selects the form and words in memory, and finally expresses them in a series of sounds. In short, speaking is a complex linguistic skill.
According to Fulcher speaking is the verbal use of language to communicate with other. [3] It relates to convey the message or information from a speaker to listener. It includes as the productive skill and creative skill that it is not easy to be done especially when it ask someone to speak in front of many people. In speaking English, there are some important things that it must be know and understood, they are fluency, accuracy and pronunciation. Speaking is not only the oral production of written language, but involves mastery of a range of sub skill that added together constitutes an overall competence in spoken language.
Speaking is one of the instruments to say an idea or opinion to other people. Its means that of communication that people can use to convey their message. It is used a way to express or to convey their felling, view and information orally. In the hand, speaking is one of the important and complicated skill, it cause that speaking is the product of creative construction of linguistic strings that speaker must make choices of lexicon, structure and discourse.
Lucas describes the definition of speaking namely speaking means utterance or discourse of one who speaks, while as verb (speak) is to utter words or articulate sounds with the ordinary voice; to make oral communication.[4]
Speaking is one of four language skills. It is a productive skill in the sense that speaker produces sounds of the language. Basically, speaking is intended for two-way communication. The speaker and listener negotiate the meaning of what they say. Speaker – listener interaction takes place in real time, thereby allowing very little time-for the speaker to response to the listener if the rules of a conversation to be maintained.
Clack and Clack states “in speaking, people put ideas into words and talk about perceptions they want other people to grasp”.[5] Speaking is an interaction process between a speaker and a listener. In speaking, there is a process of communication, which conveys the message from a speaker to a listener has to encode or interpret the message, which contains information. Encoding is a process of receiving information given by a speaker. Thus, in communication the processes of encoding occur between speaker and listener. In additions of Clack and Clack say that:
“Speaking is fundamentally an instrumental act. Speaker begins with the intention of affecting their listener in a particular way, selects and utters sentence they believe will bring about just this effect. This interaction constitutes a process of communication”.[6]
Nunan states that “communication is a collaborative achievement in which the speaker negotiates meaning in order to achieve the goals”.[7] It means that a speaker and a listener have to understand each other. In speaking, people begin with a conversation as a means of exchanging and sharing information with others.
Certainly there are motives for starting a conversation or a discussion. Culture can be behind the motives. Speaker A wishes to ask speaker B about something. There are rules to follow. The first step is perhaps to greet the other speaker before getting down to the topic. Speaker B may show his real intention of helping speaker A to find the answer to a question. Therefore, speaking contains the speaker’s intention and the information to be shared. Rivers explain that in an act of communication the speaker is influenced by environmental cues as well as by his intentions.[8] He has certain expectations as to the responses of the person to whom he is addressing the message, some of these expectations being culturally bid, and he frames his message and selects the linguistics elements to express it so as to arouse in the listener the meaning he is trying to convey.
After the topic has been established, the speakers or participants will begin the exchange of information. However, the topic can also include other new topics. This is possible since it is difficult to limit the amount of information to be shared. Only after the speakers realize that they should stop or end the walk, then they stick to one topic until the end of the conversation or discussion.
Saville-Troike argue “topic is an important elements of communicative events that includes: topic, function (purpose), setting, participants, message form, rules of interaction, message content, act sequence and norms of interpretation”.[9]
1.1. The Purpose for Speaking
As a skill that enables us to produce utterances, when genuinely communicative, speaking is desire- and purpose driven, in other words we genuinely want to communicate something to achieve a particular end. This may involve expressing ideas and opinions; expressing a wish or a desire to do something; negotiating and/or solving a particular problem; or establishing and maintaining social relationship and friendship. To achieve these speaking purposes we need to activate a range of appropriate expression.
McDonough and Shaw states that there are list different kinds of things which related to purpose for speaking, namely:
1. Asking for assistance and advice in a shop
2. Asking for directions in a different town
3. Making an appointment by telephone [10]
In the other, a Harmer says that communication occurs because there is communicative purpose between speaker and listener. The communication purpose for the speaker could be:
1. They want o say something
2. They have some communicative purpose; speaker say something because they want something to happen as a result of what they say
3. They select from their language store. Speakers have an inventive capacity to create new sentences. In order to achieve this communicative purpose they will select the language they think is appropriate from this purpose.[11]
According to Clack and Clack speaking is fundamentally an instrument act.[12] Speaker talks in order to have some effects on their listener. And according to Alexander speaking ability dealing with these purposes, they are:
1. The ability to understand English dealing with everyday subjects and spoken at normal speed
2. The ability to answer questions which require short and extended answer
3. The ability to ask question to licit short and extended answer
4. The ability to orally a large number of elementary sentence patterns
5. The ability to reproduce orally the substance of a passage of English having heard it several times and read it
6. The ability to conduct a simple conversation of everyday subject. (E.g. expressing preferences, polite interchange, careers, travel, common, experiences, etc.)
7. Give a short talk (prepared or unprepared).[13]
From the situations above that we will able to know purpose of the speaking is to give response by sounds or communicative responses which are require in a short or extended sentence. The important thing in speaking is how we understand what has heard and what we want to say in order to give response to the person who is talking to us.
1.2. The Characteristics of Spoken Language
Some of the characteristics of spoken language according to Richards, they are:
a. Clustering
Clustering is attending to appropriate “chunks” of language – phrases, clauses, constituents. Fluent speech is phrasal, not word-byword. Learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically (in breath groups) through clustering.
b. Redundancy
Redundancy means that the students can recognize the kinds of repetitions, rephrasing, elaborating and inserting that unrehearsed spoken language often contains, and benefitting from that recognition. The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through redundancy of language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.
c. Reduced Forms
Understanding the reduced forms that may not have been a part of English leaner’s part learning experience in classes where only formal “textbook” language has been presented. Constrictions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problem in teaching spoken English. Students who don’t learn colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a stilted, bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatize them.
d. Performance Variables
Performance variables refers to being able to “weed out” hesitations, false stars, pauses and corrections in natural speech. One of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as you speak allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking and correlations.
Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesitate. For example, in English our “thinking time” is not silent; we insert certain “fillers” such as uh, um, well, you know, I mean, like, etc.
e. Colloquial Language
Speaking might be spontaneous which result in mistakes, repetition, sometimes less coherent sentences where even grunts, stutters, pauses might be meaningful. Employment of nonsense vocabulary, slang and contracted forms (we’re, you’ve) is another feature of oral language. Colloquial language means that speaker have to comprehend idioms, slang, reduced forms, shared cultural knowledge. As a teacher you should make your students reasonably well acquainted with the words, idioms and phrases of colloquial language and those they get practice in producing these forms.
f. Rate of Delivery
Another silent characteristic of fluency is rate of delivery. One of your tasks in teaching spoken language is to help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of fluency. Keeping up rate of delivery means those speakers have to control his or her speed uttering in order to make the listener comprehend what he or she says. Speech develops in time that the speaker says with speed that is suitable for him, even if it may not be appropriate for the listener and through a request for repetitions is possible; it is difficult to imagine a conversation in which every sentence is to be rephrased.
g. Stress, Rhythm and Intonation
Significant features of speech are related to pronunciation namely stress, rhythm, intonations. An acceptable rhythm of connected speech should be achieved by the appropriate use of strong and weak syllables, the smooth linking of words and the effective highlighting of information bearing words. Intonation, which includes the use of a sufficiency wide pitch range and the appropriate use of contours, should be used effectively to convey meaning. Intonation is significant in conveying the messages about mood and intention.
We might consider the different meanings in varying the intonation in such a simple sentence as “that’s interesting’: we can sound bored, ironic, surprised, or indeed interested. Word stress which is exhibits a number of key patterns in English. In a stress – timed language like English this is of particular importance, because both ‘regular’ and ‘marked’ stress patterns essentially carry the message of a stretch of speech.
h. Interaction
In speaking there is social interaction and communication process. Interactive communication refers to talking an active part in the development of the discourse, showing sensitivity to turn taking and without undue hesitation. Moreover, interaction means someone interacts with the interloculator by initiating and responding appropriately, and at the required speed and rhythm.
It includes the ability to use functional language and strategies to maintain or repair interaction.
1.3. Types of Speaking
Types of speaking will be divided into two ways, namely monologue and dialogue. They are presented below:
Monologue Dialogue
Planned Unplanned Interpersonal Transactional
Unfamiliar Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar
Figure 1. Types of oral language (Adapted from Nunan, 1991b, pp. 20—21)
1. Monologue
The term ‘monologue’ in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary is defined as “it is a long speech by one person in a conversation”.
In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language for any length of time, as in speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts and the like, the hearer must process long stretches of speech without interruption- the stream of speech will go on whether or not the hearer comprehends. Planned, as opposed to unplanned, monologue differs considerably in their discourse structures. Planned monologues (such as speeches and other prewritten material) usually manifest little redundancy and are therefore relatively to comprehend. Unplanned monologue (impromptu lectures and long “stories” in conversation, for example) exhibit more redundancy, which makes for ease in comprehension, but the presence of more performance variables and other hesitations can either help or hinder comprehension.
2. Dialogue
Dialogue involves two or more speaker and can be subdivided into those exchanges that promote social relationship (interpersonal) and those for which the purpose is to convey propositional or factual information (transactional).
Some linguistic experts state that interpersonal has the same definition as interactional. ‘Interactional’ language is said to be that which contains factual or propositional information. The language used by the participants is primarily “message’ based. In each case the message has to be clearly communicated. Spoken language, however, is also used to established and maintain social roles, and this is termed ‘interactional communication’.
The definition of transactional and interactional language according to Nunan is “transactional talk is produced in order to get something, or to get something done.[14] Interactional language is produced for social purpose. Moreover, Brown asserts that “transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, is an extended form of responsive language and interactional language is a form of language which is related to make social relationship”. [15]
1.4 Speaking Achievement
Speaking is making use words in an ordinary voice, uttering words, knowing and being able to use language; expressing one in words; making speech. While skill is the ability to do something well. Therefore, we can infer that speaking is the ability to make use of words or a language to express oneself in an ordinary voice. In short, the speaking skill is the ability to perform the linguistics knowledge in actual communication. The ability functions to express our ideas, feeling, thoughts, and need orally.
Speaking is also one of the language arts that is most frequently used by people all over the world. The art of speaking is very complex. It requires the simultaneous use of the number of abilities which often develop at different rates.
According to N.L. Gage there are at least five components of speaking skill concerned with pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency, comprehension,
1 Pronunciation
For the person who hopes to communicate with speakers of a foreign language, a reasonably good approximation to the accepted pronunciation of the language is necessary, and for the person who hopes to be taken as “near-native” in fluency. In fact, it has been noted that good pronunciation is often erroneously taken to be the sign of good foreign language competence.[16]
In the other hand, Pronunciation is the way for students’ to produce clearer language when they speak. It deals with the phonological process that refers to the component of a grammar made up of the elements and principles that determine how sounds vary and pattern in a language. There are two features of pronunciation; phonemes and suprasegmental features. A speaker who constantly mispronounces a range of phonemes can be extremely difficult for a speaker from another language community to understand.
2 Grammar
It is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence in conversation. It is in line with explanation suggested by Heaton (1978: 5) that student’s ability to manipulate structure and to distinguish appropriate grammatical form in appropriate ones. The utility of grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language in oral and written form.
3 Vocabulary
One cannot communicative effectively or express their ideas both oral and written form if they do not have sufficient vocabulary. Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. So, vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is used in communication.
4 Fluently
Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately. Fluency in speaking is the aim of many language learners. Signs of fluency include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses and “ums” or “ers”. These signs indicate that the speaker does not have spend a lot of time searching for the language items needed to express the message.
The concept of fluency reflects the assumption that speakers set out to produce discourse that is comprehensible, even through this goal is often not met due to processing and production demands.
Hieke was quoted by Richards states that the prime objectives of the speaker is the generation of maximally acceptable speech in both content and form and a concomitant minimization of errors by the time an utterance has been articulated.[17] The primary goal in teaching the productive skill of speaking will be fluent speech. This case is appropriate with what Byne states about oral fluency. Byrne as quoted by Hughes argues about the main objective in teaching speaking namely
“The main goal in teaching the productive skill of speaking will be oral fluency. This can be defined as the ability to express oneself intelligibly…reasonably accurately and without too much hesitation (otherwise impatient). To attain this goal, you will have to bring the students from the stage where they are mainly imitating a model of some kind, or responding to cues, to the point where they can use the language freely to express their own ideas”.[18]
The European Threshold Level Project, Van Ek and Alexander as quoted by Richards describes oral fluency in terms of reasonable speech: with stuffiest precision: with reasonable correctness (grammatically, lexically and phonologically). Fillmore as quoted by Richards describes fluency in terms of “the ability to fill time with talks……the ability to talk in coherent, reasoned and semantically dense’ sentence ‘showing’ mastery of the semantic and syntactic resources of the language”.[19]
Lennon as quoted by Hughes states that about two senses of fluency which related to speaking achievement, they are:
The broad sense
In the ‘broad’ sense fluency appears to function as a cover term for oral proficiency. In the sense, fluency refers to the highest point on a scale that measures spoken command of a foreign language…. This broad sense also carries over into common parlance, where to be fluent in a foreign language is a mark of social accomplishment….
The narrow sense
In its narrower sense, fluency in EFL refers to one, presumably isolatable, component of oral proficiency. This sense is found particularly in procedures for grading oral examinations and many readers will be familiar with having to score candidates for fluency as well as, perhaps, correctness, idiomatic less, relevance, appropriateness, pronunciation, lexical range and so on. [20]
1.4.1. Factors that Influence Speaking Achievement
1. Age or Maturational Constraints
The interactive behavior of EFL Learners is influenced by a number of factors. Age is one of the most commonly cited determinant factors of success or failure in L2 or foreign language learning. Krashen, Long and Scarcella argue that acquires who begin learning a second language in early childhood trough natural exposure achieves higher proficiency than those beginning as adults.[21]
Oyama’s study also shows that many adults fail to reach native like proficiency in as second language. Their progress seems to level off at certain stage, a phenomenon which is usually called “fossilization” – the permanent cessation of second language development.[22]
This shows that the aging process itself may affect or limit adult learners’ ability to pronounce the target language fluently with native like pronunciation. Even if they can butter words and sentences with perfect pronunciation, problems with prosodic features for instances intonation, stress and other phonological nuances still cause misunderstanding or lead to communication breakdown.
1. Aural Medium
The central role listening comprehension in the L2 or foreign language acquisition process is now largely accepted. And there is little doubt that listening plays an extremely important role in the development of speaking abilities. Speaking feeds on listening, this precedes it. Usually, one person speaks, and other responds through attending by means of the listening process.
In fact, during the interaction, every speaker plays a double role both as a listeners and a speaker. “While listening, learners must comprehend the text by retaining information in memory, integrate it with what follows and continually adjust their understanding of what they hear in the light of prior knowledge and of incoming information” [23]
2. Sociocultural Factors
Many cultural characteristic of a language also affect L2 or foreign language learning. From a pragmatic perspective, “language is a form of social action because linguistic communication occurs in the context of structured interpersonal exchange, and meaning is thus create the traditional and social structures that bind a community together and are expressed in their language”.[24] Thus, to speak language, one must know how the language is used in a social context.
It is well known that each language has its own rues of usage as to when, how and to what degree a speaker may impose a given verbal behavior on his or her conversation partner.[25] Because of the influence or interference of their own cultural norms, it is hard for nonnative speakers to choose the forms appropriate to certain situations.
3. Affective Factors
“The affective side of learner is probably one of the most important influences on language learning success or failure”.[26] The affective factors related to L2 or foreign language learning is emotions, self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude and motivation. L2 or foreign language learning is a complex task that is susceptible to human anxiety, which is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and apprehension. One of the major obstacles have to overcome to speak is the anxiety generated over the risks of blurting things out that are wrong, stupid or incomprehensible.
2. Debate Method
Debate is an excellent activity for language learning because it engages students in a variety of Cognitive and linguistic ways. In addition to providing meaningful listening, speaking and writing practice, debate is also highly effective for developing argumentation skills for persuasive speech and writing. With practice, many students show obvious progress in their ability to express and defend ideas in debate and they often quickly recognize the flaws in each other's arguments.[27]
The term method in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary is defined as “method is a way of doing something”.[28] Method is an overall plan for learning foreign language based on the orientical approach selected. A method is procedural when it can make teacher easier to teach the lesson material. In teaching English as foreign language, there are some methods that can be applied, they are: silent way, sugesstopedia, audio-lingual method, group and discussion methods. One of group and discussion methods is debate method. Burden and Byrd argue that “debate is a formal discussion method consisting of set speeches by participants of two opposing teams and a rebuttal by teach participant”.[29]
Debate method involves a group of students becoming informed about a particular topic, and then the students present this information and interact in discussion. Debate is designed to help students understand several points of view related to a topic or issue. It combines prepared activities and statements with the give and take of discussion. It is useful in large class-activities when more informal whole-class or small-group discussion would not be feasible.
Debate is an excellent activity for language learning because it engages students in a variety of cognitive and linguistic ways. In addition to providing meaningful listening, speaking and writing practice, debate is also highly effective for developing argumentation skills for persuasive speech and writing. The term debate in Oxford advanced Learners’ Dictionary is defined as:
1. Debate is a formal argument or discussion of a question, for example at a public meeting or in Parliament or Congress with two or more opposing speakers and often ending in a vote.
2. Debate is argument or discussion in general.
Harmer states that debate is where students prepare arguments in favors or against various propositions, so that, when the debate starts, the panel speakers reduce well-rehearsed ‘writing like arguments’, whereas others in the ‘audience’ pitch in with their own (less scripted) thoughts on the subject as the debate progress.[30]
Nisbett declares “debate is an important educational tool for learning analytic thinking skills and for forcing self-conscious reflection on the validity of one’s ideas”.[31] In other words, debate is a formal contest of argumentation between two teams or individuals. But more broadly, and more importantly, debate is an essential tool for developing and maintaining democracy and open societies. Debate is, above all, a way for those who hold opposing views to discuss controversial issues without descending to insult, emotional appeals, or personal bias. A key trademark of debate is that it rarely ends in argument, but rather, allows for a robust analysis of the question at hand.
Based on http://www.brainyquote.com/words/de/debate151438.html, debate can be defined as formal, oral confrontation between two individuals, teams or groups who present arguments to support opposing sides of a question, generally according to a set form or procedure. In conclusion, debate is a game in which two opposing teams make speeches to support their arguments and disagree with those of other team.[32]
2.1. Lincoln-Douglas Debate
In 1859, Senator Stephen A. Douglas was up for re-election to his Illinois Senate seat. His opponent was Abraham Lincoln. During the campaign, the two men faced off in a The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1859, a series of seven debates on the issue of slavery. On Election day, Douglas was re-elected, but Lincoln’s position on the issue and his inspiring eloquence had earned him wide recognition that would aid his eventual bid for the presidency in the Presidential elections of 1860.
The Lincoln-Douglas debate was a series of formal political debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas in a campaign for one of Illinois’ two United State Senate seats. Although Lincoln lost the election, these debates launched him into national prominence which eventually led to his election as President of United States.
The basic format of the Lincoln-Douglas debates has been long used as a debate format in competition and in classroom. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate format is a one-to-one debate, in which two sides of an issue are debated. It starts with a statement of purpose/policy.
2.2.Lincoln-Douglas Debate Rules
A. Motions and Preparation
Debaters must be informed of resolutions well in advances of tournaments. In a Lincoln-Douglas debate, the motion is a statement, phrased as a sentence, which focuses on as issue of philosophical of political concern, and which will be analyzed from a moral perspective. Each resolution should present a clear conflict between two positions and should clearly demand defense or attack. Resolution can range from general, fundamental questions of ethical philosophy to a specific political issue.
Lincoln-Douglas debates places primacy on the ability of debaters to make original, coherent and philosophically persuasive arguments on issue of ethics. Students should familiarize themselves with the work of major ethical philosophers and should inform their cases with real-world example and analyses.
B. Interpretation of the Resolution
The cornerstone of Lincoln-Douglas debate is the productive dialogue between two differing moral interpretations of an important issue. Each debaters should present a case in which the resolution in interpreted fairly, and the complexities of an issue are acknowledge through the acceptance of some harms and risk. A good debater should be able to argue against unfair definitions of terms or the imbalanced assignment burdens. More specifically, debaters should present a persuasive of moral position that they can defend from criticism and use to argue against on opposing case, without falling into self-contradiction or denying the complexity of the issue at stake.
C. Rules During Lincoln-Douglas Debate
There are some rules of Lincoln-Douglas Debate which have to learn. They are:
A. Each debate involves two terms, one of whom argues the affirmative side, the other the negative.
1. The affirmative speakers must present a position agreeing with the resolution.
2. The negative debaters must disagree with the resolution’s statement.
Ø In circumstances where a resolution presents two alternatives, (e.g., “the sanctity of life should be valued above the quality of life?) A negative side not commonly should argue the alternative to which the affirmative side has given second priority (e.g., the quality of life should be valued above the sanctity of life?).
Ø A negative team may choose a third option and argue both alternatives provided by the resolution.
Ø Negative debaters can also argue a “critique” against a resolution in its entirety.
3. Because productive conflict or clash is key to a Lincoln-Douglas debate, each debater should be able to make a positive case for their position and values, as opposed to a purely negative attack of their opponent.
B. Lincoln-Douglas is a fundamentally value-oriented (as opposed to policy focused) debate. The role of debaters is to argue a moral position and to use logic and ethical reasoning to do so.
2.3.Lincoln-Douglas Debate Format
A. Debate Terms
In this section, the key terms of debating are introduced. As with anything, jargon can be off-putting but debating terms are simple and easy to understand. The key terms are listed below.
According to Westfall and McCarthy, and Santosa debate terms that the students must know, they are:
1. House
The room in which a debate takes place is referred to as the house and whilst a speaker is speaking they ‘have the floor’. The House is also the term used to describe the people in the room at the time of the debate, i.e., the other debaters, audience members, judgers and timekeepers.
2. Motion
The motion is the topic or subject that is being debated. Motions traditionally begin with the phrase “this house would…’ or ‘This House believes’. Motions should be of interest to the audience and for the speakers. They can be directly related to something being discussed in class or, if at an afterschool club, can be about a current affairs issue, a school issue or any other interesting and challenging topic. An example of motion is ‘This house would ban school uniform’.
3. Preposition / Affirmative
The proposition is the name of the team or teams proposing a motion. This means that they are in favors of the motion. So in the example given above, the preposition team or teams would be arguing in favor of banning school uniform. Their role in the debate would be to persuade the audience and judges that the motions are correct. They should provide information, arguments and evidence to support their case.
4. Opposition / Negative
The opposition is the team or teams opposing the motion. Their task is to provide arguments against the motion to counter the proposition’s case. In the example above, the opposition team would be in favors of keeping school uniform.
5. Rebuttal
Rebuttal is the attempt to argue against specific arguments the opposing side have put forward during a speech. Rebuttal is crucial to the exchange of ideas in a debate. Each speaker after the first proposition speaker should give part of their speech to rebutting the opposing side’s arguments. Debaters must listen and respond to what the other teams are saying.
In each rebuttal, the speaker must defend his/her own case from previous attacks made by the opponent and attack the opponent’s case itself. An argument left untouched by the opponent does not necessarily mean that the debate has agreed with that point. However, a failure to touch upon all points may be important; to the degree that “dropped” points cannot be defended later in the debate.
Rebuttals (arguments against those of the opponent) may consist of elaboration of points already mentioned or of points newly introduced, such as arguments whose logic and examples is district from the points that have preceded them. However, concerns of fairness demand that no new points should be brought up after the first affirmative rebuttal and judge should disregard such points. If a point is not defended from an attack in any given speech, it cannot be defended for the first time several speeches later.
6. Cross-Examination
In cross examination, the speaker whose opponent has just finished speaking should ask questions. Demanding? Yes or No? Questions are not permitted and the debater being questioned should be allowed an opportunity to reply. However, the debater asking questions may cut off a reply if their opponent appears to be stalling or if an important point has been reached. Throughout cross-examination, both speakers should face the audience is also directly (not each other) and should remain courteous.
7. Chairperson
The chairperson is in charge of the debate. He or she will make sure that speakers comply with the rule and will introduce the debate, speaker and adjudicators. The chairperson can be the teacher but chairing is also a great way of involving more people in the debate.
8. Timekeeper
The timekeeper is responsible for the accurate timing of each speech, so that time signals can be given at appropriate points. The timekeeper should also keep a record of how each speaker spoke for and give this to judges at the end of the debate.
9. Adjudicators/Judges
In competitive debates, adjudicators or judges are the people who decide who has won the debate. The winning team is not necessarily the side with whose arguments they agree, but rather the one that has shown overall the best debating technique and has been most persuasive. Adjudicators follow certain guidelines and should give feedback to teams to help them improve their debating ability.
B. Lincoln-Douglas Debate Format for Classroom
Arrange the class into group of six. Each group will represent one side the affirmative or negative = of a debatable question or statement. In order to involve all six individuals, each member of the team will have a specific responsibility based on the Lincoln-Douglas debate format. Each team will include students who assume the following roles:
1. Lead Debate: begin the debate, leads his group during the debate and makes conclusion based on his group’s arguments
2. Constructor: present the main points/arguments for his or her team’s stand on the topic of the debate
3. Questioner/Cross-Examiner: poses questions about the opposing team’s arguments to its Question responder
4. Question Responder: takes over the role of the Lead Debater/ Constructor as he or she responds to questions posed by the opposing team’s Questioner/Cross-Examiner
5. Rebutter: respond on behalf of his or her team as to many of the questions raised in the cross-examination as possible
6. Summarizer: closes the debate by summarizing the main points of his or her team’s arguments, especially attempts by the opposition to shoot holes in their arguments.
Lincoln-Douglas debate format (total time is 44 minutes) namely:
1. 1AC (first Affirmative Constructive) – 7 minutes
v A good introduction that attracts the audience’s attention and interest in the topic
v Clearly state the resolution
v Clearly state each of your contentions Support with reason and evidence
v Conclude effectively
2. Cross Ex of the Aff by the Neg – 3 minutes
v You ask questions – have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning
v Be courteous Face the audience
3. 1NC (first Negative Constructive) – 8 minutes
v A good introduction that attracts the audience’s attention and interest in the topic
v Clearly state the Negative’s position on the topic
v Clearly state the Negative’s Observations
v Support with reason and evidence
v Attack and question the Affirmative’s Contentions/evidence
v Conclude effectively
4. Cross Ex of the Neg by the Aff – 3 minutes
v You ask questions – have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning
v Be courteous Face the audience
5. 2AC (second Affirmative Constructive) -5 minutes
v A good introduction that attracts the audience’s attention and interest in the topic
v Clearly state of your contentions – (the 2AC may issue additional contentions) support with reason and evidence
v Respond to negative arguments/attacks
v Conclude effectively
6. Cross Ex of the Affirmative by other Negative -3 minutes
v You ask questions- have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning
v Be courteous – face the audience
7. 2NC (second Negative Constructive) -5 minutes
v A good introduction that attracts the audience’s attention and interest in the topic
v Clearly state the negative’s observations – the second negative can introduce additional observations
v Support with reason and evidence
v Attack and question the affirmative’s contentions/evidence
v Conclude effectively
8. Cross Ex for Negative by other Affirmative -3 minutes
v You ask questions- have a strategy or at the very least a direction to your questioning
v Be courteous – face the audience
Rebuttal Speeches –no new argument –new evidence and analysis are ok
9. 1NR (first Negative Rebuttal) -3 minutes
v Rebuild the negative case
v Summarize how the negative position is superior and the affirmative has not carried the burden-of-proof
v Conclude effectively
10. 1AR (first Affirmative Rebuttal) -3 minutes
v Respond to the negative arguments, rebuild the affirmative case and contentions-extend arguments and give additional support for them
v Conclude effectively
11. 2NR (negative Rebuttal and Conclusion) 3 minutes
v Respond to latest affirmative arguments
v Make your final case to the audience that the negative position is superior to the affirmative
v Try and convince the audience the affirmative has failed to carry the burden of proof
v Summarize the debate and conclude effectively and ask for the audience to agree with the negative position
12. 2AR (affirmative Rebuttal and Conclusion) -3 minutes
v Respond to final negative arguments
v Summarize the debate and show the audience how the affirmative position is superior and the affirmative has carried the burden of proof
v Conclude effectively
C. The Applications of Lincoln-Douglas Debate in the Classroom
The application of Lincoln-Douglas Debate in the classroom namely:
1. In the first meeting, introduce myself and explain the intention of doing the research. Then, the pre test is done in order to know the student’s ability before the treatment is given.
[1] A.S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (University Press, 2000), p. 1097
[2] Hughes, Teaching and Researching Speaking, (Harlow, Pearson Education Limited, 2002), p. 74
[3] G. Fulcher, Testing Second Speaking, (Great Britain, Longman, Pearson Education Limited, 2000), p. 97
[4] Stephen E. Lucas, The Art of Public Speaking, (Madiso, USA: McGraw, Fourth Edition, 1986), p. 8
[5] H. M. Clark and E. V. Clark, Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. (New York, 1977), p. 3
[6] H. M. Clark and E. V. Clark, Ibid., p. 223
[7] D. Nunan, Second Language Teaching & Learning, (Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle, 1999), p. 236
[8]W. M. River & M.S Temperly, A Practical Guide to the Teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language , (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), P. 34
[9]M. Saville-Troike, What Really Matter in Second Language Leaning for Academic?, (TESOL Quarterly, 18), p. 199-220
[10] J. McDonough & C Shaw, Material and Methods in ELT: A Teacher’s Guide, (Second Edition, Oxford, Blackwell, 2003), P. 134
[11] J. Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (Third Edition, Harlow: Pearson Education Limit, 2003), p. 40
[12] H. M. Clark and E. V. Clark, Op. cit,. P. 223
[13] Alexander J. Estill, Teaching Reading, (London: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1988), p. 160
[14] D. Nunan, Log cit., p. 236
[15] H. D. Brown, Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to language Pedagogy, (Second Edition, Needhem: Allyn and Bacon, 2001), p. 273
[16] N.L. Gage, Handbooks of Research on Teaching: American Educational Research Association, (Rand McNally & Company: Chicago, 1965), p. 1069
[17] J. C. Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix,(Cambridge: University Press, 2002), p. 75
[18] Hughes, Op. cit., p. 67
[19] J. C. Richards, Ibid., p. 67
[20] Hughes, Op. cit., p. 112
[21] S. D. Krashen., M. long & R. Scarcell, Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition; Child adult differences in second language acquisition, (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1982), p. 175-201
[22] S. Oyama, A sensitive period for the Acquisition of a Nonnative Phonological System.(Journal of Psycholinguistics Research, 1976), p. 5-3
[23] D. J. Mendelsohn and J. Rubin, A guide for the teaching of second language listening, (San Diego: Newbury House, 1996), p. 35
[24] A. L. Carrasquillo, Teaching English as a Second Language: A Resource Guide, (New York: Garland, 1994), p. 55
[25] M. Berns, Contexts of Competence; Social and Cultural Consideration in Communicative Language Teaching, (New York: Plenum Press, 1990), p. ?
[26] R. L. Oxford, Language Learning Strategies: What very Teacher Should Know, (New York: Newbury House, 1990), p. 140
[27] http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Krieger-Debate.htm. Accessed on November 5, 2010
[28] Sally Wehmeier, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (Oxford University Press, Sevent Edition, 2007), p. 393
[29] R. Paul Burden and M. David Byrd, Methods for Effective Teaching, (Second Edition. Needhem: Allyn and Bacon, 1999), p. ?
[30] Harmer, Ibid,. p. 273
[32] http://www.brainyquote.com/words/de/debate151438.html, Acceed on Desember 21. 2010
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